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what was the general pattern of non-western responses to western expansion

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Worldview centred on or biased towards Western civilisation

Eurocentrism (besides Eurocentricity or Western-centrism)[1] is a worldview that is centered on Western culture or a biased view that favors it over not-Western civilizations. The exact telescopic of Eurocentrism varies from the entire Western globe to just the continent of Europe or even more narrowly, to Western Europe (especially during the Cold War). When the term is practical historically, information technology may exist used in reference to an apologetic stance toward European colonialism and other forms of imperialism.[2]

The term "Eurocentrism" dates dorsum to the late 1970s but it did non become prevalent until the 1990s, when it was frequently applied in the context of decolonisation and development and humanitarian assistance that industrialised countries offered to developing countries. The term has since been used to critique Western narratives of progress, Western scholars who have downplayed and ignored non-Western contributions, and to dissimilarity Western epistemologies with Indigenous ways of knowing.[3] [4] [5]

Terminology [edit]

Eurocentrism equally the term for an ideology was coined by Samir Amin in the 1970s

The adjective Eurocentric, or Europe-centric, has been in apply in various contexts since at least the 1920s.[6] The term was popularised (in French as européocentrique) in the context of decolonisation and internationalism in the mid-20th century.[7] English usage of Eurocentric as an ideological term in identity politics was current by the mid-1980s.[8]

The abstract noun Eurocentrism (French eurocentrisme, earlier europocentrisme) as the term for an ideology was coined in the 1970s past the Egyptian Marxian economist Samir Amin, then director of the African Establish for Economical Development and Planning of the United nations Economic Commission for Africa.[9] Amin used the term in the context of a global, core-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development. English usage of Eurocentrism is recorded by 1979.[10]

The coinage of Western-centrism is younger, attested in the late 1990s, and specific to English language.[xi]

History [edit]

European exceptionalism [edit]

During the European colonial era, encyclopaedias often sought to give a rationale for the predominance of European rule during the colonial period past referring to a special position taken by Europe compared to the other continents.

Thus Johann Heinrich Zedler, in 1741, wrote that "even though Europe is the smallest of the world's four continents, it has for various reasons a position that places it before all others.... Its inhabitants have excellent customs, they are courteous and erudite in both sciences and crafts".[12]

The Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (Conversations-Lexicon) of 1847 still expressed an ostensibly Eurocentric approach and claimed nigh Europe that "its geographical situation and its cultural and political significance is clearly the nigh of import of the five continents, over which information technology has gained a almost influential government both in material and fifty-fifty more so in cultural aspects".[13]

European exceptionalism thus grew out of the Slap-up Difference of the Early Modern period, due to the combined effects of the Scientific Revolution, the Commercial Revolution, and the rising of colonial empires, the Industrial Revolution and a Second European colonisation wave.

European exceptionalism is widely reflected in popular genres of literature, especially in literature for young adults (for example, Rudyard Kipling's 1901 novel Kim [ citation needed ]) and in adventure-literature in general. Portrayal of European colonialism in such literature has been analysed in terms of Eurocentrism in retrospect, such equally presenting idealised and often exaggeratedly masculine Western heroes, who conquered "savage" peoples in the remaining "dark spaces" of the earth.[14]

The European miracle, a term coined by Eric Jones in 1981,[fifteen] refers to the surprising rise of Europe during the Early Mod period. During the 15th to 18th centuries, a bully deviation took identify, comprising the European Renaissance, the European historic period of discovery, the formation of European colonial empires, the Historic period of Reason, and the associated leap forrard in technology and the evolution of commercialism and early industrialisation. As a result, by the 19th century European powers dominated world trade and world politics.

In Lectures on the Philosophy of History, published in 1837, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel saw world history as starting in Asia only shifting to Greece and Italia, and so northward of the Alps to French republic, Germany and England.[16] [17] Hegel interpreted India and China equally stationary countries, defective inner momentum. Hegel'due south China replaced the real historical evolution with a fixed, stable scenario, which fabricated it the outsider of earth history. Both India and Cathay were waiting and anticipating a combination of sure factors from outside until they ccould acquire real progress in human being civilisation.[xviii] Hegel's ideas had a profound bear upon on western historiography and attitudes. Some scholars disagree with his ideas that the Oriental countries were outside of world history.[xix]

Max Weber (1864-1920) suggested that capitalism is the speciality of Europe, considering Oriental countries such as India and China practise not contain the factors which would enable them to develop capitalism in a sufficient manner.[20] [ need quotation to verify ] Weber wrote and published many treatises in which he emphasized the distinctiveness of Europe. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Commercialism (1905), he wrote that the "rational" commercialism, manifested by its enterprises and mechanisms, but appeared in the Protestant western countries, and a series of generalised and universal cultural phenomena only appear in the w.[21]

Even the state, with a written constitution and a authorities organised past trained administrators and constrained by rational police, only appears in the West, fifty-fifty though other regimes can also comprise states.[22] ("Rationality" is a multi-layered term whose connotations are developed and escalated equally with the social progress. Weber regarded rationality as a proprietary article for western capitalist society.)

Journalists detected Eurocentrism in reactions to Russia's "special war machine operation" in Ukraine in February 2022, when the depth and scope of coverage and concern contrasted with (for case) that devoted to longer-running, bloodier and more vicious contemporary wars outside Europe in Syrian arab republic and in Yemen.[23]

Anticolonialism [edit]

Fifty-fifty in the 19th century, anticolonial movements had developed claims about national traditions and values that were fix against those of Europe in Africa and Republic of india. In some cases, every bit Prc, where local credo was even more than exclusionist than the Eurocentric one, Westernisation did not overwhelm longstanding Chinese attitudes to its own cultural centrality.[24]

Orientalism developed in the belatedly 18th century as a disproportionate Western interest in and idealisation of Eastern (i.e. Asian) cultures.

By the early 20th century, some historians, such equally Arnold J. Toynbee, were attempting to construct multifocal models of world civilisations. Toynbee also drew attending in Europe to non-European historians, such as the medieval Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun. He also established links with Asian thinkers, such equally through his dialogues with Daisaku Ikeda of Soka Gakkai International.[25]

The explicit concept of Eurocentrism is a product of the period of decolonisation in the 1960s to 1970s. Its original context is the core-periphery or dependency model of capitalist development of Marxian economic science.[ citation needed ]

Debate since 1990s [edit]

Eurocentrism has been a specially important concept in development studies.[26] Brohman (1995) argued that Eurocentrism "perpetuated intellectual dependence on a restricted group of prestigious Western academic institutions that determine the subject field matter and methods of enquiry".[26]

In treatises on historical or gimmicky Eurocentrism that appeared since the 1990s, Eurocentrism is mostly bandage in terms of dualisms such as civilised/barbaric or advanced/backward, developed/undeveloped, core/periphery, implying "evolutionary schemas through which societies inevitably progress", with a remnant of an "underlying presumption of a superior white Western self every bit referent of analysis" (640[ clarification needed ]).[27] Eurocentrism and the dualistic properties that information technology labels on not-European countries, cultures and persons accept frequently been criticised in the political discourse of the 1990s and 2000s, particularly in the greater context of political correctness, race in the United States and affirmative action.[28] [29]

In the 1990s, there was a trend of criticising various geographic terms current in the English language language as Eurocentric, such as the traditional partitioning of Eurasia into Europe and Asia[xxx] or the term Middle E.[31]

Eric Sheppard, in 2005, argued that contemporary Marxism itself has Eurocentric traits (in spite of "Eurocentrism" originating in the vocabulary of Marxian economic science), because information technology supposes that the third world must go through a phase of capitalism before "progressive social formations can exist envisioned".[3]

Andre Gunder Frank harshly criticised Eurocentrism. He believed that most scholars were the disciples of the social sciences and history guided by Eurocentrism.[iv] He criticised some Western scholars for their ideas that not-Western areas lack outstanding contributions in history, economy, ideology, politics and civilisation compared with the West.[32] These scholars believed that the aforementioned contribution made by the West gives Westerners an advantage of endo-genetic momentum which is pushed towards the rest of the world, but Frank believed that the Oriental countries too contributed to the human culture in their own perspectives.

Arnold Toynbee in his A Report of History, gave a disquisitional remark on Eurocentrism. He believed that although western capitalism shrouded the world and achieved a political unity based on its economy, the Western countries cannot "westernize" other countries.[33] Toynbee concluded that Eurocentrism is feature of three misconceptions manifested by self-centerment, the fixed development of Oriental countries and linear progress.[34]

There has been some fence on whether historical Eurocentrism qualifies as "but another ethnocentrism", as it is found in most of the world's cultures, especially in cultures with majestic aspirations, every bit in the Sinocentrism in China; in the Empire of Japan (c. 1868–1945), or during the American Century. James M. Blaut (2000) argued that Eurocentrism indeed went across other ethnocentrisms, every bit the calibration of European colonial expansion was historically unprecedented and resulted in the formation of a "colonizer'south model of the world".[35]

Ethnic philosophies have been noted to profoundly contrast with Eurocentric thought. Ethnic scholar James (Sákéj) Youngblood Henderson states that Eurocentricism contrasts greatly with Ethnic worldviews: "the discord between Ancient and Eurocentric worldviews is dramatic. Information technology is a conflict between natural and artificial contexts."[5] Indigenous scholars Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Linco state that "in some means, the epistemological critique initiated past Ethnic knowledge is more radical than other sociopolitical critiques of the W, for the Indigenous critique questions the very foundations of Western ways of knowing and being."[36]

Academic discourse [edit]

The terms Afrocentrism vs. Eurocentrism have come to play a part in the 2000s to 2010s in the context of the academic discourse on race in the Us and disquisitional whiteness studies, aiming to expose white supremacism and white privilege.[37] Afrocentrist scholars, such as Molefi Asante, have argued that there is a prevalence of Eurocentric thought in the processing of much of academia on African affairs.[ commendation needed ]

In contrast, in an article, 'Eurocentrism and Academic Imperialism' by Professor Seyed Mohammad Marandi, from the University of Tehran, states that Eurocentric idea exists in well-nigh all aspects of academia in many parts of the earth, especially in the humanities.[38] Edgar Alfred Bowring states that in the West, self-regard, self-congratulation and denigration of the 'Other' run more securely and those tendencies have infected more aspects of their thinking, laws and policy than anywhere else.[39] [40] Luke Clossey and Nicholas Guyatt have measured the degree of Eurocentrism in the research programs of top history departments.[41]

Latin America [edit]

Eurocentrism affected Latin America through colonial domination and expansion.[42] This occurred through the awarding of new criteria meant to "impose a new social classification of the globe population on a global scale".[42] Based on this occurrence, a new social-celebrated identities were newly produced, although already produced in America. Some of these names include; 'Whites', 'Negroes', 'Blacks', 'Yellows', 'Olives', 'Indians', and 'Mestizos'.[42] With the advantage of being located in the Atlantic bowl, 'Whites' were in a privileged to control aureate and silverish production.[42] The work which created the production was by 'Indians' and 'Negroes'.[42] With the control of commercial capital from 'White' workers. And therefore, Europe or Western Europe emerged as the cardinal place of new patterns and capitalist ability.[42]

Effect on beauty standards in Brazil [edit]

According to Alexander Edmond's book Pretty Modernistic: Beauty, Sex activity, and Plastic Surgery in Brazil, whiteness plays a role in Latin American, specifically Brazilian, dazzler standards, but information technology is not necessarily distinguished based on skin colour.[43] Edmonds said the main ways to ascertain whiteness in people in Brazil is by looking at their hair, nose, then oral fissure before considering skin color.[43] Edmonds focuses on the popularity of plastic surgery in Brazilian civilization. Plastic surgeons usually applaud and flatter mixtures when emulating aesthetics for performing surgery, and the more popular mixture is African and European.[44] This shapes beauty standards by racialising biological and pop beauty ideals to suggest that mixture with whiteness is meliorate.[43] Donna Goldstein's book Laughter Out of Place: Race, Course, Violence, and Sexuality in a Rio Shantytown also addresses how whiteness influences beauty in Brazil. Goldstein notes that in Brazil, in that location is a bureaucracy for beauty that places being white at the top and blackness characteristics at the bottom, calling them ugly.[45]

Challenging these standards of beauty in Brazil would require society to "question the romantic and sexual entreatment of whiteness."[45] Goldstein said every bit a result, black bodies would have to be decommodified, and black women in particular have had to commodify their bodies to survive.[45]

In Erica Lorraine William'due south Sex activity Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous Entanglements, Williams addresses how European and white beauty standards have more privileges than darker skinned and black women in Brazil.[46] Blackness women in Brazil take to strategise ways to receive more respect in spaces popular for sexual activity tourism.[46] Williams cites Alma Gulliermoprieto when she explains that in that location is a superiority given to light-skinned black women over darker-skinned blackness women as light-skinned women were considered more beautiful because they were "improved with white claret."[47]

Islamic world [edit]

Eurocentrism's effect on the Islamic world has predominantly come up from a fundamental argument of preventing the account of lower-level explanation and business relationship of Islamic cultures and their social evolution, mainly through eurocentrism's idealist construct.[48] This construct has gained power from the historians revolving their conclusions effectually the idea of a central point that favours the notion that the development of societies and their progress are dictated by general tendencies, leading to the Islamic world'southward evolution condign more of a philosophical topic of history instead of historical fact.[48] Along with this, eurocentrism extends to trivialise and marginalise the philosophies, scientific contributions, cultures, and other additional facets of the Islamic earth.[49]

Stemming from Eurocentrism's innate bias towards Western civilisation came the cosmos of the concept of the "European Club," which favoured the components (mainly Christianity) of European civilisation and allowed eurocentrists to brand diverging societies and cultures as "uncivilized."[50] Prevalent during the nineteenth century, the labelling of uncivilised in the optics of eurocentrists enabled Western countries to classify not-European and non-white countries as inferior, and limit their inclusion and contribution in actions similar international law. This exclusion was seen as adequate past individuals like John Westlake, a professor of international constabulary at the University of Cambridge at the time, who commented that countries with European civilisations should exist who comprises the international order, and that countries like Turkey and Persia should simply be immune a part of international law.[50] The figurative superiority resulting from the ascension of "European Civilization" and the labels of "civilized" and "uncivilized" are partly responsible for eurocentrism's denial of Islamic social development, giving westerners the advantage of an early on dismissal of such ideas regarding Oriental civilisations through comparisons to the West. Along with that, the rooted belief of the inferiority of non-white and non-Europeans has given justification for racial discrimination and discredit to the Islamic globe, with much of these feelings still present today.[ commendation needed ]

Orientalism [edit]

Eurocentrism'due south reach has not only affected the perception of the cultures and civilisations of the Islamic world, only also the aspects and ideas of Orientalism, a cultural idea that distinguished the "Orient" of the Due east from the "Occidental" Western societies of Europe and North America, and which was originally created then that the social and cultural milestones of the Islamic and Oriental earth would be recognised. This effect began to take place during the nineteenth century when the Orientalist ideals were distilled and shifted from topics of sensuality and deviating mentalities to what is described by Edward Said every bit "unchallenged coherence."[51] Along with this shift came the creation of ii types of orientalism: latent, which covered the Orient's constant immovability through history, and manifest, a more dynamic orientalism that changes with the new discovery of data.[51] The eurocentric influence is shown in the latter, every bit the nature of manifest Orientalism is to be altered with new findings, which leaves it vulnerable to the warping of its refiner's ethics and principles. In this land, eurocentrism has used orientalism to portray the Orient as "backwards" and bolster the superiority of the Western world and continue the undermining of their cultures to further the agenda of racial inequality.[51]

With those wanting to represent the eurocentric ideals better by fashion of orientalism, in that location came a barrier of languages, being Arabic, Persian, and other similar languages. With more researchers wanting to study more than of Orientalism, in that location was an assumption made about the languages of the Islamic world: that having the ability to transcribe the texts of the past Islamic world would give great knowledge and insight on oriental studies. In order to practise this, many researchers underwent preparation in philology, assertive that an understanding of the languages would be the only necessary training. This reasoning came as the belief at the time was that other studies like anthropology and sociology were deemed irrelevant as they did not believe it misleading to this portion of flesh.[52] Through this action, eurocentric researchers' understanding of Oriental and Islamic culture was intentionally left undermined, foregoing the reasoning behind the actions and reasoning for the changes in civilisation documented by Islamic and Oriental texts and allowing for farther possible Western influence on orientalism, and increasing the difficulty of identifying what is truly Oriental and what is considered Oriental past the W.[ citation needed ]

In the beauty industry [edit]

Eurocentrism has affected the beauty realm globally. The beauty standard has become Westernized and has influenced people throughout the globe. Many have contradistinct their natural self to reverberate this image.[53] Many beauty and advertising companies take redirected their products to support the idea of Eurocentrism.[54]

Kathy Deliovsky argues that "normative femininity is never signified outside a process of racial domination and negation" when looking at a social club congenital on "European imperialism and colonialism."[55] White femininity, similar whiteness in general, is perceived as normative because it isn't viewed as "white", but just equally "femininity."[55] [ non-main source needed ]

A 1986 report by Pierre van den Berghe and Peter Frost found a widespread cultural preference for lighter pare in females.[56] Nevertheless, they argue that the preference for lightness often antedates European contact such as in the instance of the Aztecs, the Japanese and the Ancient Egyptians, a strong preference for lightness is found even in societies that were never colonised by the West, and, even in areas colonised by Europe, preference for skin lightness is often accompanied by explicit rejection of European phenotypes.[56] Instead they suggest evolutionary explanations for the preference, noting neotenous traits may induce male investment and light peel signals fertility.[56]

Clark doll experiment [edit]

In the 1940s, psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark conducted experiments called "the doll tests" to examine the psychological effects of segregation on African-American children. They tested children by presenting them 4 dolls, identical merely different skin tone. They had to cull which doll they preferred and were asked the race of the doll. Most of the children chose the white doll. The Clark's stated in their results that the perception of the African-American children were altered by the bigotry they faced.[57] The tested children also labelled positive descriptions to the white dolls.

I of the criticisms of this experiment is presented by Robin Bernstein, a professor of African and African American studies and women, gender, and sexuality. Her argument is that "the Clarks' tests were scientifically flawed. Merely she said that the tests did reverberate a negative portrayal of black dolls in American theater and media that dates back to the Ceremonious State of war era...." Thus, Bernstein said, the choices made past the subjects of the Clark doll tests was not necessarily an indication of black cocky-hatred. Instead, information technology was a cultural choice betwixt two different toys—one that was to be loved and 1 that was to be physically harassed, as exemplified in performance and popular media. Co-ordinate to Bernstein, this argument "redeems the Clarks' kid subjects by offer a new understanding of them non as psychologically damaged dupes, only instead as agential experts in children'due south culture."[58]

Mexican doll experiment [edit]

In 2012, Mexicans recreated the doll test. United mexican states's National Council to Prevent Discrimination presented a video where children had to pick the "practiced doll," and the doll that looks like them. By doing this experiment, the researchers wanted to analyse the degree to which Mexican children are influenced by modern-day media accessible to them.[59] Most of the children chose the white doll; they also stated that it looked similar them. The people who carried out the study noted that Eurocentrism is deeply rooted in different cultures, including Latin cultures.[sixty]

Dazzler advertisements [edit]

Advertisements shown throughout the globe are Eurocentric and emphasise western characteristics.[ citation needed ] Caucasian models are the chief choice of models to be hired by globally popular brands such equally Estee Lauder and L'Oreal. Regional models in Korea, Hong Kong and Japan have barely fabricated it to global brands' ads, compared to Caucasian models, who appear in forty-four per cent of Korean and fifty-four per cent of Japanese ads. Past actualization in these ads, they are emphasising that the ideal skin is bright, transparent, white, full, and fine. On the other mitt, night African peel is looked down upon.[61]

Skin lightening [edit]

Pare lightening has become a mutual practise throughout different areas of the world. One motivation for the use of peel lightening products is to wait more than 'European'.[62] In other cases, the practice began long before exposure to European beauty standards – tan skin was associated with lower-class field work, and thus abiding exposure to dominicus, while having pale skin signified belonging to the upper-class.[63] [64] Many women risk their health using these products to obtain the skintone they desire. A study conducted by Dr Lamine Cissé observed the female person population in some African countries. They found that 26% of women were using pare lightening creams at the time and 36% had used them at some time. The common products used were hydroquinone and corticosteroids. 75% of women who used these creams showed cutaneous adverse furnishings.[65] Whitening products take too become pop in many areas in Asia like South Korea.[66] With the rise of these products, research has been washed to written report the long term damage. Some complications experienced are exogenous ochronosis, impaired wound healing and wound dehiscence, the fish odour syndrome, nephropathy, steroid addiction syndrome, predisposition to infections, a wide spectrum of cutaneous and endocrinologic complications of corticosteroids, and suppression of hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis.[67]

Republic of korea [edit]

Cosmetic surgery is pop in South korea. Prevalence of corrective surgery in South Korea is not rooted in Western dazzler standards,[68] simply is instead primarily due to other factors, such as more general dissatisfaction with appearance and meliorate chances on the job market.[69] [seventy] Co-ordinate to the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, South korea has the highest rates of plastic surgery procedures per capita in 2014.[71] The well-nigh requested procedures are the blepharoplasty and rhinoplasty.[72] Some other procedure washed in Korea is having the muscle under the tongue that connects to the bottom of the mouth surgically snipped. Parents have their children to undergo this surgery in society to pronounce English better.[73]

See besides [edit]

  • Afrocentrism
  • Americentrism
  • The Crest of the Peacock: Not-European Roots of Mathematics
  • The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation
  • Hellenocentrism
  • History of Western civilisation
  • Orientalism
  • Pan-European identity
  • Universalism in geography
  • Western civilisation

References [edit]

Notes

  1. ^ Hobson, John (2012). The Eurocentric formulation of world politics : western international theory, 1760-2010. New York: Cambridge Academy Press. p. 185. ISBN978-1107020207.
  2. ^ Eurocentrism and its discontents, American Historical Association
  3. ^ a b Sheppard, Eric (Nov 2005). "Jim Blaut'southward Model of the World". Antipode. 37 (5): 956–962. doi:ten.1111/j.0066-4812.2005.00544.x.
  4. ^ a b Payne, Anthony (2005). "Unequal Evolution". The Global Politics of Diff Development. pp. 231–247. doi:10.1007/978-one-137-05592-7_9. ISBN978-0-333-74072-nine.
  5. ^ a b Youngblood Henderson, James (Sákéj) (2011). "Ayukpachi: Empowering Ancient Idea". In Battiste, Marie (ed.). Reclaiming Indigenous Vocalization and Vision. UBC Press. pp. 259–61. ISBN9780774842471.
  6. ^ The German language describing word europa-zentrisch ("Europe-centric") is attested in the 1920s, unrelated to the Marxist context of Amin's usage. Karl Haushofer, Geopolitik des pazifischen Ozeans (pp. 11–23, 110-113, passim). The context is Haushofer'south comparison of the "Pacific infinite" in terms of global politics vs. "Europe-centric" politics.
  7. ^ A Rey (ed.) Dictionnaire Historique de la langue française (2010): À partir du radical de européen ont été composés (mil. XXe southward.) européocentrique adj. (de centrique) « qui fait référence à l'Europe » et européocentrisme n.k. (variante europocentrisme n.m. 1974) « fait de considérer (un problème général, mondial) d'united nations point de vue européen » ."
  8. ^ Hussein Abdilahi Bulhan, Frantz Fanon and the Psychology of Oppression (1985), 63ff: "Fanon and Eurocentric Psychology", where "Eurocentric psychology" refers to "a psychology derived from a white, heart-class male minority, which is generalized to humanity everywhere".
  9. ^ "Anciens directeurs" (uneca.org) ("Samir AMIN (Egypte) 1970-1980").
  10. ^ Alexandre A. Bennigsen, Due south. Enders Wimbush , Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Matrimony: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial Globe (1979), p. 19.
  11. ^ "pluralistic cultural coexistence equally opposed to Western centrism and Asian centrism" (unhyphenated) in: Mabel Lee, Meng Hua, Cultural dialogue & misreading (1997), p. 53. "our incomplete perception of Chinese behavior, which tends to be 'Western-axial.'" (using scare-quotes) in: Houman A. Sadri, Revolutionary States, Leaders, and Foreign Relations: A Comparative Study of Mainland china, Cuba, and Islamic republic of iran (1997), p. 35. "Euro- or western-centrism" in the context of the "traditional discourse on minority languages" in: Jonathan Owens (ed.), Standard arabic every bit a Minority Language (2000), p. 1. Employ of Latinate occido-centrism remains rare (e.g. Alexander Lukin, Political Culture of the Russian 'Democrats' (2000), p. 47).
  12. ^ "[German: Obwohl Europa das kleinste unter allen 4. Teilen der Welt ist, and then ist es doch um verschiedener Ursachen willen allen übrigen vorzuziehen.... Die Einwohner sind von sehr guten Sitten, höflich und sinnreich in Wissenschaften und Handwerken.] "Europa". In: Zedlers Universal-Lexicon Archived 11 September 2011 at the Wayback Car, Volume eight, Leipzig 1734, columns 2192–2196 (citation: cavalcade 2195).
  13. ^ "[German: [Europa ist seiner] terrestrischen Gliederung wie seiner kulturhistorischen und politischen Bedeutung nach unbedingt der wichtigste unter den fünf Erdtheilen, über die er in materieller, noch mehr aber in geistiger Beziehung eine höchst einflussreiche Oberherrschaft erlangt hat.] Das große Conversations-Lexicon für dice gebildeten Stände, 1847. Vol. ane, p. 373.
  14. ^ Daniel Iwerks, "Ideology and Eurocentrism in Tarzan of the Apes," in: Investigating the Unliterary: Six Readings of Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan of the Apes, ed. Richard Utz (Regensburg: Martzinek, 1995), pp. 69-90.
  15. ^ Jones, Eric (2003). The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia. ISBN978-0-521-52783-5.
  16. ^ de Boer, Karin (6 June 2017). Moyar, Dean (ed.). "Hegel's Lectures on the History of Modern Philosophy". Oxford Handbooks Online. 1. doi:x.1093/oxfordhb/9780199355228.013.29.
  17. ^ Iarocci, Michael P. (2006). Properties of Modernity: Romantic Spain, Mod Europe, and the Legacies of Empire. ISBN9780826515223.
  18. ^ Farmer, Edward 50. (1985). "Civilization as a Unit of Globe History: Eurasia and Europe's Place in Information technology". The History Instructor. eighteen (3): 345–363. doi:10.2307/493055. JSTOR 493055.
  19. ^ Baker, Gideon (2013). "On the Origins of Mod Hospitality". Hospitality and World Politics. doi:10.1057/9781137290007.0006. ISBN9781137290007.
  20. ^ Bendix, Reinhard; Roth, Guenther (1980). Scholarship and partisanship : essays on Max Weber (California Library reprint series ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press, volume 110. ISBN978-0520041714. OCLC 220409196.
  21. ^ The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. 3 July 2017. doi:10.4324/9781912282708. ISBN9781912282708. [ page needed ]
  22. ^ Marks, Robert (2015). The origins of the modern world: a global and environmental narrative from the fifteenth to the 20-commencement century (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland. ISBN9781442212398. OCLC 902726566. [ folio needed ]
  23. ^ "Ukraine invasion: Arab journalists call out 'orientalist, racist' double standards on Ukraine coverage". The New Arab. London. Retrieved i March 2022. Arab journalists take chosen out the 'racist, orientalist' news coverage on the war in Ukraine, which they've accused of Eurocentric bias and ignoring the reality of conflict for many in the Middle East and N Africa.
  24. ^ Cambridge History of China, CUP,1988
  25. ^ McNeill, William (1989). Arnold J. Toynbee: A Life. New York and Oxford: Oxford Academy Press. pp. 272–73. ISBN978-0-xix-505863-5. From Toynbee's point of view, Soka Gakkai was exactly what his vision of the historical moment expected, for it was a new church, arising on the fringes of the 'post-Christian' globe.... Convergence of East and Due west was, indeed, what Toynbee and Ikeda sought and thought they had found in their dialogue. In a preface, written in the tertiary person, Toynbee emphasized and tried to explain this circumstance. 'They agree that a homo ought to be perpetually striving to overcome his innate propensity to try to exploit the rest of the universe and that he ought to be trying, instead, to put himself at the service of the universe so unreservedly that his ego will get identical with an ultimate reality, which for a Buddhist is the Buddha land. They agree in believing that this ultimate reality is not a humanlike divine personality.' He explained these and other agreements as reflecting the 'birth of a common worldwide civilization that has originated in a technological framework of Western origin but is now being enriched spiritually by contributions from all the historic regional civilizations.' ... [Ikeda'south] dialogue with Toynbee is the longest and most serious text in which Eastward and W—that is, Ikeda and a famous representative of the mission field that Ikeda sees before him—accept agreed with each other. In the unlikely event that Soka Gakkai lives up to its leader'southward hopes and realizes Toynbee's expectations past flourishing in the Western world, this dialogue might, similar the messages of St. Paul, achieve the condition of sacred scripture and thus become by far the nigh important of all of Toynbee'south works.
  26. ^ a b Brohman, John (1995). "Universalism, Eurocentrism, and Ideological Bias in Development Studies: From Modernisation to Neoliberalism". Tertiary World Quarterly. 16 (i): 121–140. JSTOR 3992977.
  27. ^ Sundberg, Juanita (2009). "Eurocentrism". International Encyclopedia of Homo Geography. pp. 638–643.
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  29. ^ Loewen, James "lies My teacher told me"(1995)
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External links [edit]

  • Critiques of Eurocentrism Bibliography
  • Franzki, Hannah. "Eurocentrism." 2012. InterAmerican Wiki: Terms - Concepts - Critical Perspectives.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocentrism

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